MDDE+602+Module+1

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Module #1

Module 2 Module 3 Module 4 Glossary

Relevant Resources I have Found
Major Research Paradigms (YouTube video 5:45)

Textbook Readings
Week 1 History of science and research methods > Neuman, Chapter 1 & 2 Week 2 Epistemology, knowledge and research > Neuman, Chapter 4 Week 3 Theory and knowledge construction > Neuman, Chapter 3

Articles to Read
Week 1 History of science and research methods: > Shulman, L. S. (1997). Disciplines of inquiry in education: A new overview. In R. M. Jaegar (Ed.), //Complementary methods for research in education//, 2nd edition. Washington, DC.: American Educational Research Association. (23 pages). (Module 1, Unit 1.)

> Hallinan, M. T. (1996). Bridging the gap between research and practice. //Sociology of Education, 69//(extra issue), 131-134.

> Oosterlinck, A., Debackere, K., & Cielen, G. (2002). Balancing basic and applied research. //EMBO Reports, 3//(1), 1-5.

> [|Laying Bare Feminist Values: An Exercise in Self-Inquiry, by Allison Gross] (This was added for us to comment on to "liven up the conference" it is not on the reading list.)

Week 2 Epistemology, knowledge and research: > Garrison, D. R. & Shale, D. (1994). Methodological issues: Philosophical differences and complementary methodologies. In Garrison, D. R. (Ed.), //Research perspectives in adult education//. Florida: Krieger. (21 pages). (Module 1, Unit 2.)

Week 3 Theory and knowledge construction: > Garrison, D. R. (2000). Theoretical challenges for distance education in the 21st century. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning 1(1). Retrieved November 29, 2002, (9 pages). (Module 1, Unit 3.)

> Jarvis, P. (1999). Theory re-conceptualized. In //The practitioner-researcher: Developing theory from practice//. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (10 pages). (Module 1, Unit 3.)

> Jarvis, P. (1999). From practice to theory. In //The practitioner-researcher: Developing theory from practice//. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (7 pages). (Unit 1, topic 3.)

Recommended Readings
Gibbons, M. (1996). //The new production of knowledge: Dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies.// Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. (Module 1, unit 1.)

Stronbach, I. & MacLure, M. (1997). //Educational research undone: The postmodern embrace//. Philadelphia: Open University Press. (Module 1, unit 2.)

Dewar, T. D. (1998). Women and adult education: A postmodern perspective. In G. Selman & P. Dampier (Eds.), //The Foundations of Adult Education In Canada//. Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing. Available electronically at: http://www.telusplanet.net/public/tddewar/women.html (Module 1, unit 2.)

Beare, H. & Slaughter, R. (1993). Beyond scientific materialism: Accepting other ways of knowing. In H. Beare & R. Slaughter, //Education in the twenty-first century//. London: Routledge. (Module 1, unit 3.)

Heyman, R. (1994). Beyond mind reading: The power of strategic talk. In R. Heyman, //Why didn't you say that in the first place?// San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (Module 1, unit 3.)

**WEEK 1**

 * Neuman, Chapter 1**

1. What sources of knowledge are alternatives to social research? (p. 2-7)
 * Authority: females are taught to make, select, mend, and clean clothing as part of a female focus on physical appearance and on caring for children or others in a family. Women do the laundry based on their childhood preparation.
 * Tradition: Women have done the laundry for centuries, so it is a continuation of what has happened for a long time.
 * Common Sense: Men just are not as concerned about clothing as much as women are, so it only makes sense that women do the laundry more often.
 * Media Myth: Television commercials show women often doing laundry and enjoying it, so they do laundry because they think it's fun.
 * Personal Experience: My mother and the mothers of all my friends did the laundry. My female friends did it for their boyfriends, but never the other way around. It just feels natural for the woman to do it.
 * Overgeneralization Statements that go far beyond what can be justified based on the data or empirical observations that one has.
 * Selective observation Making observations in a way that it reinforces preexisting thinking, rather than observing in a neutral and balanced manner.
 * Premature closure Making a judgment, or reaching a decision and ending an investigation, before one has the amount or depth of evidence required by scientific standards.
 * Halo effect Allowing the prior reputation of persons, places, or things to color one's evaluations, rattler than evaluating all in a neutral, equal manner.

2. Why is social research usually better than the alternatives'? > Scientists gather data using specialized techniques and use the data to support or reject theories. (p. 8)

3. Is social research always right? Can it answer any question? Explain. > Knowledge from the alternatives is often correct. But knowledge based on research is more likely to be true and has fewer errors. It is important to recognise that research does not always produce perfect knowledge. Nonetheless, compared to the alternatives, it is less likely to be flawed. Let us review the alternatives before examining social research. (p. 2/3)

4. How did science and oracles serve similar purposes in different eras'? > Before science became fully entrenched, people used prescientific or nonscientific methods. These methods that are less widely accepted in modern society (e.g., oracles. mysticism, magic, astrology. or spirits). Such prescientific systems were an unquestioned way to produce knowledge that people took to he true. Such prescientific methods still exist but are secondary to science. Some people use nonscientific methods to study topics beyond the scope of science (e.g.. religion, art, or philosophy). Today few people seriously question science as a legitimate way to produce know (edge about modern society. (p. 8)

5. What is the scientific community? What is its role? > Scientific community: A collection of people who share a system of attitudes, beliefs, and rules that sustains the production and advance of scientific knowledge.

6. What are the norms of the scientific community? What are their effects? (p. 11)
 * 1) Universalism. Irrespective of who conducts research (e.g., old or young, male or female) and regardless of where it was conducted (e.g., United States or France, Harvard or Unknown University ), the research is to be judged only on the basis of scientific merit.
 * 2) Organized skepticism. Scientists should not accept new ideas or evidence in a carefree, uncritical manner. They should challenge and question all evidence and subject each study to intense scrutiny. The purpose of their criticism is not to attack the individual, but to ensure that the methods used in research can stand up to close, careful examination.
 * 3) Disinterestedness. Scientists must be neutral, impartial, receptive, and open to unexpected observations or new ideas. They should not be rigidly wedded to a particular idea or point of view. They should accept, even look for, evidence that runs against their positions and should honestly accept all findings based on high-quality research.
 * 4) Communalism. Scientific knowledge must be shared with others; it belongs to everyone. Creating scientific knowledge is a public act, and the findings are public property, available for all to use. The way in which the research is conducted must be described in detail. New knowledge is not formally accepted until other researchers have reviewed it and it has been made publicly available in a special form and style.
 * 5) Honesty. This is a general cultural norm, but it is especially strong in scientific research. Scientists demand honesty in all research; dishonesty or cheating in scientific research is a major taboo.

7. How does a study get published in a scholarly social science journal?

8. What steps are involved in conducting a research project? (p. 15)



9. What does it mean to say that research steps are not rigidly fixed? (p. 15) > Research is an interactive process in which steps blend into each other. A later step may stimulate reconsideration of a previous one. The process is not strictly linear; it may flow in several directions before reaching an end. Research does not abruptly end at step 7. It is an ongoing process, and the end of one study often stimulates new thinking and fresh research questions. (Iterative Design Process)

10. What types of people do social research? For what reasons? (p. 20) > Students, professors, professional researchers, and scientists in universities, research centers, and the government, with an army of assistants and technicians, conduct much social research.

Comments,
 * Most quantitative data techniques are data condensers. They condense data in order to we the big picture....
 * Qualitative methods are best understood as data enhancers. Data are enhanced to see key aspects of cases more clearly.
 * Qualitative researchers begin with a self-assessment and reflections about themselves as situated in a sociohistorical context. It is a highly self-aware acknowledgment of social self or of a researcher's position in society. (p. 14/15)
 * We need to be aware of our hidden assumptions and biases.


 * Neuman, Chapter 2**

1. When is exploratory research used, and what can it accomplish?
 * Research in which the primary purpose is to examine a little understood issue or phenomenon to develop preliminary ideas and move toward refined research questions by focusing on the "what" question.
 * Purpose: To gain background information and better understand and clarify a problem (from this ppt)
 * Can be used to develop hypotheses and to develop questions to be answered
 * Can be used to help a researcher understand how to measure something.
 * Exploratory research is less formal, sometimes even unstructured. (Techniques for exploratory research: Pilot study – a sample experiment with fewer subjects, Can be very basic. Focus groups – like a group interview, Surveys)
 * Exploratory research is generally a precursor to a more formal study. Help saves time, resources, and lives.
 * If a researcher is starting a new project, they probably should start with exploration.
 * Case studiesResults from exploratory research are generally limited.

2. What types of results are produced by a descriptive research study? (from the same ppt)
 * Used to answer questions of who, what, where, when, and how – but not why. What is the current status of a phenomenon
 * Descriptive research is generally quantitative.
 * Techniques of descriptive research: Surveys, Correlation studies, Observation studies, Interviews
 * Cannot answer questions of causality
 * Descriptive research can help understand a topic and lead to causal analysis.

3. What is explanatory research? What is its primary purpose? (from the same ppt)
 * Explanatory research seeks to “explain” a phenomenon. Generally involves revealing cause, but also structural and interpretive. Builds on exploratory and descriptive research.
 * Techniques for explanatory research: Experiments, Quasi-experimental designs – experiment that lack random assignment.
 * Ultimately, we always want to explain what we are studying.
 * Exploration and description are a vital part of this.
 * Some researchers may want the description and could care less about the explanation.

4. What are the major differences between basic and applied research? (from the same ppt)
 * Basic – aka pure, academic. Used to advance general knowledge. Understanding something for the sake of knowledge. Sometimes basic researchers do miss the big picture.
 * Basic research is really the source of all knowledge. Applied research needs it.
 * Basic research is not presented to the public in an intelligible fashion.
 * Applied Research – applying knowledge gained from research for a particular application.
 * Applied Research – addresses more practical concerns (Examples: Which toy will be more popular? How effective are online classes? How can you reduce anticipatory nausea in cancer patients receiving chemotherapy?)

5. Who is likely to conduct basic research, and where are results likely to appear?
 * Hard core scientists at the center of the scientific community conduct and consume most of the basic research. (p. 25)
 * Basic research are more likely to enter the public domain in publications. (p.25)

6. Explain the differences among the three types of applied research.
 * Evaluation research**
 * Does it work? What is the merit of a particular project.
 * Focuses on outcomes
 * Measures the effectiveness of a strategy or program.
 * Industry and business are likely to use this.
 * Example: Effectiveness of psychotherapy
 * Evaluation research can include:
 * Formative evaluation – built-in monitoring, continuous feedback, E.g., classroom effectiveness,
 * Summative evaluation – looks at program outcomes
 * Techniques: Experiments, Surveys, Many other types
 * Potential problems in evaluation research: Unrealistic expectations, Potential pressure of vested interests, Want to maintain objectivity during the research.

7. How do time-series, panel, and cohort studies differ'?

8. What are some potential problems with cost-benefit analysis?

9. What is a needs assessment? What complications can occur when conducting one?

10. Explain the differences between qualitative and quantitative research.

Comments, Exploration: If little is known or understood, exploration is the purpose. For example, we know a great deal about distance education instructional design, but not as much about individual responses to various distance education instructional design modes. (From course notes)

Descriptive: If the phenomenon is well established, but little is know about the internal mechanisms and causal relationships embedded in the phenomenon, your purpose may be descriptive. This approach will identify critical aspects and the boundaries of an issue or event. A case study of a successful agency delivering distance education in rural areas will tell us what makes up that agency, what roles people play, the characteristics of students, the delivery modes used, etc. From this descriptive work, ideas about relationships among the characteristics emerge, and the research design process begins again. (From course notes)






 * Shulman Article**

Problems Settings Investigators Methods Purpose
 * Dimensions of Analysis** (p. 4-6)
 * General: nature of learning (How does learning occur?)
 * Focused: educational practice and policy (How do students' prior conceptions of conservation affect their learning of physics?)
 * Control: psychological laboratories, controlled classrooms, carefully designed questionnaires, inventories, or interviews (Argument: safer generalizations could be proposed.)
 * No Controls: real classrooms with real teachers. (Argument: impossible to generalize)
 * Traditionally: exclusively disciplinary specialists: psychologists, historians, philosophers, or sociologists.
 * Currently: wider range of social scientist (anthropologists, linguists, economists), humanists, subject-matter specialists, and classroom teacher.
 * Traditionally: used psychology's experimental and correlational methods.
 * Currently: augmented by qualitative or field research methods. (ethnographic methods of anthropology, discourse analysis procedures from linguistics and sociolinguistics, "think-aloud" and other forms of protocol analysis from cognitive science, ...) Also, new quantitative techniques for analyzing data.
 * discover/invent new theoretical understandings of particular educational processes or phenomena
 * develop new methods, techniques, or strategies for solving specific problems
 * acquire a more complete description or accounting of the conditions associated with particular schools, students, or content areas
 * apply previously acquired understandings in the amelioration or improvement of current educational conditions, whether of practice or policy
 * connect or integrate previously distinct areas of theory, practice, or policy
 * improve particular forms of practice or to inform specific policies
 * test or extend a theoretical formulation in a related discipline such as psychology or sociolinguistics
 * evaluate or understand the impact of practice in a particular school or classroom
 * formulation of broad generalizations and principles

Research definition for Disciplined Inquiry – The systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigations of phenomena of interest to the decision–maker. Disciplined Inquiry has moved away from the dichotomy of Qualitative versus Quantitative model
 * Disciplined Inquiry**

to a revised model of Disciplined Inquiry.

Interesting: Education is not a discipline, but a field of study. > "...education is a field of study, a locus containing phenomena, events, institutions, problems, persons, and processes that themselves constitute the raw material for inquiries of many kinds. The perspectives and procedures of many disciplines can be brought to bear on the questions arising from and inherent in education as a field of study. As each of these disciplinary perspectives is brought to bear on the field of education, it brings with it its own set of concepts, methods, and procedures, often modifying them to fit the phenomena or problems of education. Such modifications, however, can rarely violate the principles defining those disciplines from which the methods were drawn." (p. 9 Shulman)

Methods "different procedures are used to ask different questions and to solve different problems for different purposes." (p. 11)

Generalizability > Generalizability across people--generalization from the particular sample of individuals who are tested, taught, or observed in a given study to some larger population of individuals or groups of which they are said to be representative (p. 13) > Generalizability across situations--generalization is from the particular tasks or settings in which a piece of work is conducted to that population of tasks or settings that the research situation is claimed to represent (p. 14)

> Correlationists: study the natural covariations occurring in nature. (Goal: to understand and exploit the natural and, presumably, enduring variations among individuals) (p. 17)

> Experimentalists are interested in the variation they themselves create. The experimental method is one in which scientists change conditions in order to observe the consequences of those changes. They are interested in understanding how nature is put together, not by inspecting nature as it is but by introducing modifications or changes in nature in order to better understand the consequences of those changes for subsequent states. They argue that only through the systematic study of planned modifications can we distinguish causal relationships between events or characteristics from mere chance co-occurrences. (p. 15) (Goal: to create conditions to reduce those variations.) (p. 17)

> One of the enduring problems in research methodology has been the tendency to treat selection of method as primarily a technical question not associated with the underlying theoretical or substantive rationale of the research to be conducted. Selecting the method most appropriate for a particular disciplined inquiry is one of the most important, and difficult, responsibilities of a researcher. The choice requires an act of judgment grounded in knowledge both of methodology and of the substantive area of the investigation. (p. 17)


 * Reflections**

1. Consider the methodological positions outlined by Neuman and Garrison & Shale. Is there one position that attracts you the most? If, yes, what about it is most appealing and why? If no, why not? In this case, which position would you take doing research?

2. Find an article that reports the findings from research on a topic of interest. Evaluate the link between: a) the authors/researchers apparent position regarding the production of knowledge and b) the research methods. Are they consistent?

3. What is the possible outcome in research if data collection methods do not match a researcher's conceptions of knowledge

**WEEK 2**

 * Neuman, Chapter 4**

1. What is the purpose of social research according to each approach? 2. How does each approach define social reality? 3. What is the nature of human beings according to each approach? 4. How are science and common sense different in each approach'? 5. What is social theory according to each approach? 6. How does each approach test a social theory? 7. What does each approach say about facts and how to collect them? 8. How is value-free science possible in each approach? Explain. 9. How are the criticisms of positivism by the interpretive and critical science approaches similar? 10. How does the model of science and the scientific community presented in Chapter 1 relate to each of the three approaches?

My quick visualization of The Three Approaches to Social Research.


 * Garrison & Shale Article**


 * Positivists**: rationalistic (realist, objective) (link to ppt)
 * the belief in a logically ordered, objective reality that we can come to know better and better through science (link to a paper)
 * Criticisms of Positivism:Objectivity is a myth, Not truly systematic, Lacks external validity

Assumptions of **Interpretivism** ([|link to ppt])
 * Meanings are constructed by humans as they engage with the world they are interpreting.
 * Humans make sense of the world based on their historical and social perspective. They seek to understand the context and then make an interpretation of what they find which is shaped by their own experiences and backgrounds.
 * The basic generation of meaning is always social.
 * assumes that the social world does not have an existence separate from the investigator and that it is the manner by which the investigator interprets the social world that determines reality (link to a paper)
 * From the general to the particular, interpretivists look for the intricacies of everyday life and the characteristics of interaction with objects and individuals. Theory is developed inductively in that it emerges from research. This approach expects that perception (the process of selecting and interpreting information) results in varying realities. It is made up of descriptions that illuminate the way meaning is created and sustained. Interpretativism is associated with qualitative research methods.

Positivists’ and interpretivists commonly recognize that an investigator may affect subjects of a research investigation.
 * The difference between the two ideological perspectives is that positivists’ believe that there are deliberate steps for researchers to control investigators’ interferences, other potential contaminants, and confounding variables among others.
 * On the other hand, interpretivists’ respond with the view that efforts toward such objectivity are illusionary at best. Indeed, interpretivists’ maintain that such interference is not limited to physical/social interaction (or other disturbances of the social “reality”). Such interference begins with the construction of the original research question: “In the view of (interpretivist), scientists construct an image of reality that reflects their own preferences and prejudices and their interactions with others” (Schutt, 1999, p. 393). (link to a paper)

> Factual or realistic representation, especially: a. The practice of describing precisely the actual circumstances of human life in literature. b. The practice of reproducing subjects as precisely as possible in the visual arts. > Criticisms of Naturalism: Superficial, Lacks rigor, Unscientific (unsystematic), Subjective, Lacks internal validity (link to ppt)
 * Naturalism**: //Philosophy// The system of thought holding that all phenomena can be explained in terms of natural causes and laws.


 * Phenomenology** is used to refer to subjective experiences or their study.
 * The experiencing subject can be considered to be the person or self, for purposes of convenience. In phenomenological philosophy 'experience' is a considerably more complex concept than it is usually taken to be in everyday use. Instead, experience (or Being, or existence itself) is an 'in-relation-to' phenomena, and it is defined by qualities of directedness, embodiment and worldliness which are evoked by the term 'Being-in-the-World'. Nevertheless, one abiding feature of 'experiences' is that, in principle, they are not directly observable by any external observer.
 * Describes and interprets the meaning of everyday experiences, concepts and phenomena from the perspective of several individuals
 * Phenomenology refers to the relationship between consciousness and social life, and the creation of social action and situations

Quantitative Research: two major subtypes Qualitative Research: five major subtypes
 * experimental
 * non-experimental
 * Phenomenology: a form of qualitative research in which the researcher attempts to understand how one or more individuals __experience a phenomenon__.
 * Ethnography: a form of qualitative research focused on __describing the culture__ of a group of people.
 * Case study research: a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a __detailed account of one or more cases__.
 * Grounded theory research: a qualitative approach to __generating a theory__ from the data that the researcher collects.
 * Historical research: research about __events in the past__.

Epistemology: > Issues related to (1) arise in the consideration of skepticism, radical versions of which challenge the possibility of knowledge of matters of fact, knowledge of an external world, and knowledge of the existence and natures of other minds. (link) Theoretical Perspectives = Knowledge Paradigms Methodology = Research Designs
 * A branch of philosophy and underpins the research process. Epistemology refers to the study of the character, scope, and nature of knowledge, with particular concern for the limits of knowledge and validity. knowledge=episteme and study=ology
 * Study of the origin, nature, and limits of human knowledge. Nearly every great philosopher has contributed to the epistemological literature. Some historically important issues in epistemology are:
 * 1) whether knowledge of any kind is possible, and if so what kind;
 * 2) whether some human knowledge is innate (i.e., present, in some sense, at birth) or whether instead all significant knowledge is acquired through experience (see empiricism; rationalism);
 * 3) whether knowledge is inherently a mental state (see behaviourism);
 * 4) whether certainty is a form of knowledge; and
 * 5) whether the primary task of epistemology is to provide justifications for broad categories of knowledge claim or merely to describe what kinds of things are known and how that knowledge is acquired.

QN = Quantitative research approach QL = Qualitative research approach (Empiricism, postpositivism...)
 * ~ Epistemology ||~ Theoretical Perspectives = Knowledge Paradigms ||~ Methodology ||~ Methods ||
 * What and how can we know about it? || Overarching perspective concerning appropriate research practice, based on ontological and epistemological assumptions. || How can we go about acquiring knowledge? || What procedures can we use to acquire it? ||
 * Objectivity believes that knowledge exists whether we are conscious of it or not. Objectivism (similar to behaviorism) states that reality is external and is objective, and **knowledge is gained through experiences.**

Constructionist believes that we come to “know” through our interactions. Interpretivism (similar to constructivism) states that reality is internal, and **knowledge is constructed**. (Interpretivism, ... )

Subjectivity believes that everyone has a different understanding of what we know. Pragmatism (similar to cognitivism) states that reality is interpreted, and **knowledge is negotiated through experience and thinking.** (Realism, pragmatism...)

Don't forget... Advocacy/Participatory
 * political empowerment issue-oriented
 * collaborative change-orientated

Look at Driscoll p 14, Figure 1.3 || ** Positivism **

Post-Positivism

· Symbolic interactionism · Phenomenology · Hermeneutics
 * Interpretivism **

Pragmatism

Participatory · ** Critical Inquiry ** · Feminism

Post Modernism

Naturalism

|| Experimental (QN) Quasi experimental (QN) Survey (QN)

Case Study (QL) Ethnography (QL) Phenomenological Research (QL) Ethnology (QL) Field Research (QL) Narratives (QL) Grounded Theory (QL) Heuristic Inquiry (QL) Naturalistic Inquiry (QL) Action Research (QL) Biography (QL)

Sequential (MM) Concurrent (MM) Transformative (MM)

Discourse Analysis Feminist Standpoint Research

|| Statistical analysis (QN) Performance, attitude, observation, census data (QN) Instrument based questions (QN) Predetermined (QN) Content analysis (QN) Descriptive (QN) Document analysis (QN) Conversation analysis (QN)

Text and image analysis (QL) Interview, observation, document, audiovisual data (QL) Open-ended questions (QL) Emerging methods (QL) Historical (QL) Case study (QL) Interview (QL) Observation (QL) · Participant · Non-participant Descriptive Statistics (QL)

Sampling Measurement and scaling Questionnaire

Focus group Life history Narrative Visual ethnographic methods Data reduction Theme identification Comparative analysis Cognitive mapping Interpretative methods ||

Ontology
 * **What** is out there to know?
 * the study of being - essentially studying questions of **what** kinds of entities exist link
 * the study of what there is in the world (objects, properties, relations, etc.)
 * basic assumptions about the nature of reality.
 * involves the philosophy of reality link
 * However, besides knowing what the experience of gravity is like, there is also the fact that gravity exists. How is it that gravity exists? What establishes its existence? What is the underlying nature of gravity? All these are ontological questions because they are concerned with the nature of existence. link
 * claims and assumptions that are made about the nature of social reality, claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make it up and how these units interact with each other. In short, ontological assumptions are concerned with what we believe constitutes social reality.(Blaikie, 2000, p. 8)
 * What is the nature of reality? If there were no human beings, might there still be galaxies, trees and rocks? Would they still be beautiful?

Epistemology > Example
 * what and **how** can we know about it?
 * What is knowledge? How is knowledge acquired? What do people know? **How do we know what we know**?
 * the study of knowing - essentially studying what knowledge is and **how** it is possible) same link
 * the study of knowledge and **justification**
 * basic assumptions about what we can know about reality, and about the relationship between knowledge and reality.
 * addresses how we come to know reality link
 * there are things we know because we've experienced them sufficiently (like gravity), or I accept something as "known" because others have experienced them sufficiently. link
 * Epistemology poses the following questions: What is the relationship between the knower and what is known? How do we know what we know? What counts as knowledge? link
 * the possible ways of gaining knowledge of social reality, whatever it is understood to be. In short, claims about how what is assumed to exist can be known. Blaikie, 2000, p. 8
 * What is knowledge? What is the relationship between knowledge and reality? If there were no human beings, would there still be three basic types of rock? Did the unconscious exist before Freud?
 * ontology is a paving slab
 * where epistemology is when philosophers wonder HOW we know it is a paving slab. link

Paradigm
 * Overarching perspective concerning appropriate research practice, based on ontological and epistemological assumptions

Methodology
 * How can we go about acquiring knowledge?
 * Identifies the particular practices used to attain knowledge of it. link
 * Specifies how the researcher may go about practically studying whatever he / she believes can be known.

Methods
 * What procedures can we use to acquire it?

Standard one: the conceptualization of validity is a unitary construct. Five general standards for educational research are: (p. 29/30)
 * Comprehensive View of Validity** (Standards advanced by Eisenhart and Howe, 1992)
 * Data collection and analysis techniques fit with the research questions. (Internal Validity)
 * Data collection and analysis techniques are applied effectively.(Internal Validity)
 * Background assumptions are coherent and consistent with research questions and methods. (alertness to and coherence of prior knowledge) (Internal Validity)
 * Conclusions are warranted and credibility strategies employed (e.g., looking for confirming and disconfirming evidence).(Internal Validity)
 * The study has value, in that it contributes understanding to the educational community and in that it has been ethically conducted. Comprehensiveness/overall warrant. (External Validity)

background assumptions both with respect to the literature as well as the researcher's own "subjectivities must be made explicit if they are to clarify, rather than obscure, research design and findings.

regardless of epistemological or methodological perspectives "Good research practice obligates the researcher to triangulate, that is, to use multiple methods, data sources, and researchers to enhance the validity of research findings " ( p. 13). She went on to say that the use of any single method would be biased as would the view of any single individual; therefore, triangulation "is the methodological counterpart to intersubjective agreement." (p. 31)

> Internal validity means there are no errors internal to the design of the research project.' It is used primarily in experimental research to talk about possible errors or alternative explanations of results that arise despite attempts to institute controls
 * Internal Validity**

//>// External validity is used primarily in experimental research. It is the ability to generalize findings front a specific setting and small group to it range of settings and people. It addresses the question: If something happens in a laboratory or among a particular group of subjects (e.g.. college students), can the findings be generalized to the ''real" (nonlaboratory ) world or to the general public ( nonstudents )//?//
 * External Validity**

WEEK 3

 * Neuman, Chapter 3**

1. How do concrete and abstract concepts differ? Give examples. (p. 54)
 * Concepts range from very concrete ones easily evident in the familiar empirical world to highly abstract mental creations far removed from direct, daily empirical life. Abstract concepts refer to aspects of the world we do not directly or easily experience but nonetheless help organize thought and expand understanding.
 * Concrete concepts: such as books or height, are defined by simple nonverbal processes
 * Complex abstract concepts: require formal dictionarylike definitions and are defined by other concepts. We often define higher-level, more abstract concepts with lower level ones. Top, bottom, and distance are Iess abstract than height and are used in its definilion. Similarly, the concept of agression is more abstract than hit, slap, puh, ..

2. How do researchers use ideal types and classifications to elaborate concepts? (p. 55)
 * Ideal types are pure, abstract models that define the essence of the phenomenon in question . They are mental pictures that define the central aspects of a concept.
 * for example, the ideal student.

3. How do concepts contain built-in assumptions? Give examples. (p. 52)
 * Concepts sometimes include things that are not observable or testable and we accept them as a starting point. Often assumptions remain hidden or unstated.
 * For example, theory about a book assumes a system of writing, people who can read. and the existence of paper. Without such assumptions. the idea of a book makes little sense.

4. What is the difference between inductive and deductive approaches to theorizing?
 * Deductive reasoning, propositions made up of concepts and their relationships are established first and then data is collected that verify or refute the propositions.
 * Inductive reasoning, the process begins with data or concrete observations. Through thoughtful and rigorous examination of the data, propositions are generalized from the data. Sometimes researchers use inductive reasoning at the exploratory stage of reviewing an issue and move to explanation, where they test the explanatory power of the propositions they created at the exploratory stage. This results in a cycle of theory building through generation, testing, regeneration and retesting. (iterative design process)

5. Describe how the micro, meso, and macro levels of social reality differ.(p. 61/2)
 * Micro-level theory Social theory focusing on the micro level of social life that occurs over short durations (e.g., face-to-face interactions and encounters among individuals or small groups).
 * Meso-level theory Social theory focusing on the relations, processes, and structures at a midlevel of social life (e.g., organizations, movements, and communities) and events operating over moderate durations (many months, several years, or a decade).
 * Macro-level theory Social theory focusing on the macro level of social life (e.g., social institutions, major sectors of society, entire societies, or world regions) and processes that occur over long durations (many years, multiple decades, or a century or longer).

6. Discuss the differences between prediction and theoretical explanation. (p. 62/3) > Theoretical explanation: a logical argument that tells why something takes a specific form or occurs. It refers to a general rule or principle. > Prediction: a statement that something will occur.
 * It is easier to predict than to explain, and an explanation has more logical power than prediction because good explanations also predict.
 * An explanation rarely predicts more than one outcome, but the same outcome may be predicted by opposing explanations.
 * A prediction is less powerful than an explanation, many people are entranced by the dramatic visibility of a prediction.
 * a weak explanation can produce an accurate prediction. A good explanation depends on a well-developed theory and is confirmed by empirical observations.(ex., earth revolves around the sun, not that a turtle carries the sun across the sky on its back.)
 * explanation implies logically connecting what occurs in a specific situation to a more abstract or basic principle about "how things work."

7. What are the three conditions for causality? Which one is never completely demonstrated? Why? (p. 63-67)
 * temporal order:
 * cause must come before an effect,
 * This establishes the direction of causality (cause-->effect)
 * Simple causal relations are unidirectional
 * Most studies examine unidirectional relations
 * More complex theories specify reciprocal-effect causal relations (mutual causal relationship) or simultaneous causality
 * association: The co-occurrence of two events, characteristics, or factors such that when one happens/is present, the other one is likely to happen be present as well.
 * the elimination of plausible alternatives (this one is never completely demonstrated because it is impossible.
 * A researcher tries to eliminate major alternative explanations in two ways: through built-in design controls and by measuring potential hidden causes.
 * Researchers also try to eliminate alternatives by measuring possible alternative causes. This is common in survey research and is called controlling for another variable.
 * *An implicit fourth condition is an assumption that a causal relationship makes sends or fits with broader assumptions or a theoretical framework.

8. Why do researchers use diagrams to show causal relationships? > Researchers often draw diagrams of the causal relations to present a simplified picture of a relationship and see it at a glance. Such symbolic representations supplement verbal descriptions of causal relations and convey complex information. They are a shorthand way to show theoretical relations.

9. How do structural and interpretive explanations differ from one another?
 * Structural: Aspects of social life are explained by noting where they fit within the larger structure emphasizing locations, interdependences, distances, or relations among positions in that structure. (p. 69)
 * Interpretive theorists attempt to discover the meaning of an event or practice by placing it within a specific social context. Understanding.

10. What is the role of the major theoretical frameworks in research? > Structural Functionalism (p. 75) > Exchange Theory (also Rational Choice) > Symbolic Interactionism > Conflict Theory
 * Major Concepts: system, equilibrium, dysfunction, division of labor
 * Key Assumptions: Society is a system of interdependent parts that is in equilibrium or balance. Over time, society has evolved from a simple to a complex type, which has highly specialized parts. The parts of society fulfill different needs or functions of the social system. A basic consensus on values or a value system holds society together.
 * Major Concepts: opportunities, rewards, approval, balance, credit
 * Key Assumptions: Human interactions are similar to economic transactions. People give and receive resources (symbolic, social approval, or material) and try to maximize their rewards while avoiding pain, expense, and embarrassment. Exchange relations tend to be balanced. If they are unbalanced, persons with credit can dominate others.
 * Major Concepts: self, reference group, role-playing, perception
 * Key Assumptions: People transmit and receive symbolic communication when they socially interact. People create perceptions of each other and social settings. People largely act on their perceptions. How people think about themselves and others is based on their interactions.
 * Major Concepts : power, exploitation, struggle, inequality, alienation
 * Key Assumptions: Society is made up of groups that have opposing interests. Coercion and attempts to gain power are ever-present aspects of human relations. Those in power attempt to hold onto their power by spreading myths or by using violence if necessary.

Notes, Ideology: Similarities
 * Ideology and Theory** (p. 50/51)
 * A nonscientific quasi-theory, often based on political values or faith, with assumptions, concepts, relationships among concepts, and explanations. It is a
 * closed system that resists change, cannot be directly falsified with empirical data, and makes normative claims.
 * Ideologies are belief systems closed to contradictory evidence that use circular reasoning.
 * Ideologies selectively present and interpret empirical evidence.
 * "Don't confuse me with facts, I know I'm right!"
 * Contains a set of assumptions or a starting point
 * Explains what the social world is like, how/why it changes
 * Offers a system of concepts/ideas
 * Specifies relationships among concepts, tells what causes what
 * Provides an interconnected system of ideas

Differences Has all the answers Fixed, closed, finished Avoids tests, discrepant findings Blind to opposing evidence Locked into specific moral beliefs Highly partial Has contradictions, inconsistencies Rooted in specific position || Conditional, negotiated understandings Incomplete, recognizes uncertainty Growing, open, unfolding, expanding Welcomes tests, positive and negative evidence Changes based on evidence Detached, disconnected, moral stand Neutral considers all sides Strongly seeks logical consistency, congruity Transcends/ crosses social positions ||
 * ~ Ideology ||~ Social Theory ||
 * < Offers absolute certainty

Three major forms of theoretical explanation: >
 * Causal explanation: Three conditions to establish causality: Temporal order, Association, Eliminating alternatives
 * Structural explanation: sequential theory, network theory, functional theory.
 * Interpretative explanation: The purpose of interpretive explanation is to foster understanding. The interpretive theorist attempts to discover the meaning of an event or practice by placing it within a specific social context. He or she tries to comprehend or mentally grasp the operation of the social world, as well as get a feel for something or to see the world as another person does. Because each person's subjective worldview shapes how lie or she acts, the researcher attempts to discern others' reasoning and view of things. (p. 72)


 * Reflections**

1. Consider an aspect of distance education that interests you. Create an informal list of all that you know’ about this phenomenon. How do you know these things? Can you see relationships between the different aspects of the phenomenon?

2. Identify aspects of your practice that are of interest to you? What unanswered questions do you have about these aspects of your practice?

WEEK4

 * Neuman, Chapter 6**


 * "Reciprocity of perspectives" or intersubjectivity**: By making use of systems of signs and expressions, a person can not only be able to communicate her subjective interpretations of the situation with her partner, but she can also across examine the typificality that her partner has imputed to her. As a result, partners in a human interaction may then arrive at a consensus on their perspectives regarding their encounter. (ppt)